The Riddle of the Stars

The following paragraphs will chart the changing ideas of man in his search for answers to the ancient riddle of the stars. Stone circles and pyramids date from thousands of years ago. Prehistoric man discovered the idea of a telescope, and mapped the passage of the sun and planets. (Archaeologists have dug up glass lenses in Egypt that could have formed a telescope.)Ancient Mayan texts that describe astronomical calculations were written in hieroglyphic language and survive today. It was the ancient Greek society in Athens though, that produced the ﬁrst extensive written theories of a truly moderncosmological theory. The Greek philosophers and scientists Socrates, Plato and Aristotle laid the foundations of modern ideas in the 5th and 4th centuries BC. Socrates(470-399 B.C.) was the ﬁrst philosopher and scientist to have his life related in a biography. Though hardly likely to be the ﬁrst with many of these ideas, we have no earlier written texts. He analysed human life, and proposed a theory of the soul in the ether. His most famous saying is “know thyself”. He had been a soldier in the infantry, had two wives and three children. He was sentenced to death for his moral stance and forced to drink the poison made from the hemlock plant. He was a great orator but not a writer. It was for Plato, his pupil, to pass on his mentor’s thoughts.

Plato (c.428-348/7 BC) was an Athenian who established a wide- ranging moral philosophy that had an inﬂuence on western society that lasts until today. After the death of Socrates, he and other philosophers had to travel around Europe to escape persecution. He founded an academy in Athens in 387 BC. where science and philosophy were taught and developed. He wrote extensively on philosophy, religion, psychology, metaphysics, politics and government. He developed science, including a theory of atoms and a geometry of the Universe. Aristotle (384-322 BC) of Macedonia was a mathematician, philosopher, and author who worked with Plato, and learned from Socrates. He was the son of the Royal Physician to the Macedonian King. After Plato died he travelled from Athens to Assus, Macedonia. There he established his own school, tutoring the boy who became Alexander the Great. He wrote extensively and 47 of his works survive. He established the Lyceum at Athens where history and science were taught. He developed scientiﬁc theories of the Earth and of gravitation. He also wrote on philosophy, historiography, genetics, reproduction, monetary systems and microbiology, among the many diverse topics of his expertise. Centuries later Martin Luther amongst others in the sixteenth century popularised his work, teaching the philosophy and science of those ancient Greeks. Other Greek mathematicians, Eudoxus and Heracleides added to Plato’s geocentric mathematical theory. Aristotle proposed a theory of matter, but as far as we know, Plato was the ﬁrst person to describe the Universe in mathematical and geometric terms. Plato again is the ﬁrst recorded person to describe matter as consisting of (atomic) particles. Since Socrates regrettably never wrote anything down, we rely on the writings of Plato and Xenophon to pass on his thoughts. Because of this it is impossible now to separate Socratic and Platonic theory, or indeed that of any other prior persons. Socrates was 43 years older than Xenophon and Plato. All his ideas were passed by word of mouth. It is thought that it was Plato who derived the ﬁrst mathematical theories of planetary motion. Plato decided that the maths were more important than theory and causation. This reverence for calculation as pure expression has persevered to the present day. Socrates on the other hand was a true metaphysicist. The Platonic ideology that mathematics describes the cause of events is a fallacy. Mathematics describe the course of events, and then those calculations require constant adjustment to ﬁt the observed constant variation. It was in 300 BC that Euclid laid the foundations of modern geometry. Yet another Greek, Archimedes (287-212 BC) theorised on objects ﬂoating in liquids . The Greekscientist, Ptolemy (127-145) catalogued the stars and again argued the geocentric (earth centred) system. There followed many centuries bereft of new scientiﬁc ideas. The Roman Civilisation which displaced that of the Ancient Greeks produced no great scientists. The only scientists of note in the Roman period were immigrant Greeks. The Greek and Roman civilisations declined, leaving no record of scientiﬁc thought from the Roman period.

If the following dark ages produced any science, it was not recorded or preserved for posterity. Monastic life in Europe developed no noted science. Even the 1,000-year civilisation of Byzantium produced no science. The 12th century produced somescience in the Arab World. In Islamic civilisation, the Muslim philosopher Averoës developed a mystical “Neoplatonic” Cosmology in which light was studied as the clue to reality that was to be grasped by the senses and described geometrically. It was in the sixteenth century that discoveries and theory took a real leap forward. Universities had been established in Europe. Martin Luther (1483-1546) the great religious theologian, qualiﬁed BA in 1502, MA in 1505, and Doctor of Theology in 1512. Once established as professor at Wittenburg in Germany, he taught and promoted the works and science of the ancient Greeks. Leonardo Da Vinci (1452- 1519) followed by Benedetti and Stevin (1548-1620), experimented with falling bodies.

Copernicus (1473-1543) produced his paper on the motion of the heavenly bodies (the heliocentric system) in 1514. Improvements in the accuracy of observations allowed the Copernican view of an inﬁnite Universe. It was no longer possible to support Ptolomy’s description of the movements of the stars, moon and sun around the earth. The idea of the earth being only a small planet in an inﬁnite universe was hard for some to accept. Fortunately, Pope Clement VII approved, whilst Martin Luther and other zealots clung strongly to Aristotle’s ideas. In due course, the Copernican view was accepted. Bruno (1547-1600) published a treatise based on the Copernican system in 1583.

Tycho Brahé (1546- 1601) plotted the positions of the stars, yet still supported the system of a ﬁxed Earth. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), applied the art of mathematics to pendulums, the free fall of bodies, projectiles, and acceleration, and recognised that the planets revolved around the Sun. He did not discover the telescope, which had been in use for many centuries, but likely was more a curiosity than a very useful instrument. He reﬁned the telescope, for the ﬁrst time grinding lenses accurately enough to see the craters on the Moon. Observing the movement of sunspots, he showed the rotation of the Sun on its axis for the ﬁrst time. He observed the librations (wobble) of the Moon, but believed that the orbits of the planets must be circular (as they would have to be if gravity existed). Galileo was accused of blasphemy for his support of the Copernican heliocentric theory. After trial in 1633, he narrowly escaped execution. The Pope commuted his prison sentence, and he remained conﬁned on his secluded estate at Arcetri near Florence for the remainder of his life.

As the 16th century turned into the 17th, Kepler and Descartes were about to redeﬁne the foundation of physics. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) believed in a divine plan. He realised that Mars could not be orbiting the Earth. He ascertained that the planets move in ellipses, and sweep out equal areas in equal time. He laid the foundation of the inverse square law with his third law of the period of revolution of a planet. He redesigned the telescope, by moving the position of the second lens beyond the point of focus of the ﬁrst lens. This simple adjustment to the telescope allowed it to magnify as much as a thousand times more than the design used by Gallileo .

In the seventeenth century science and philosophy continued to evolve. Rene Déscartes (1596-1650), perhaps the greatest philosopher of all time, built a theory of man and the universe. He reasoned, “I think, therefore I am.” He advised criticism, scepticism and rechecking of ideas, something now essential not only for the revision of our ideas of the basis of science and life, but to be applied to the structure of society and the human useage of the planet earth itself. Déscartes described the path of a moving object at any point intersecting two parallel lines at right angles, by a list of positions and times. This he expressed in algebraic terms. He described a universe inﬁnitely large, ﬁlled with inﬁnitely divisible matter. Matter was “set in motion by God and the matter imparted motion to any body within”. The rotation of the sun was caused by the rotation of the matter in a whirlpool of dark matter. Planets were carried round the sun in this vortex. Matter continued in motion unless affected by that around it. He proposed two laws of motion:

If two bodies have equal mass and velocity before collision then they will be reﬂected by that collision and retain their speed. If two bodies have unequal masses then the lighter body will be reﬂected with a speed equal to that of the heavier body. This was unfortunately not veriﬁed. Cartesian theory survived almost indeﬁnitely in France but was at odds with later Newtonian science. Déscartes built a theory of the nature of man and the universe. He described the motion of a body in time and mathematical terms, using algebra for the ﬁrst time, and a universe full of inﬁnitely divisible matter, set in motion by God. His concept of inertia proposed that the Earth does not move relative to the material it is within. He formulated two laws of motion. For a philosopher as obsessed with mechanism as Rene Déscartes the relationship between visible machines and the invisible machinery (dark matter) of God’s cosmos was paramount. Two theories were proposed to account for optical phenomena. Déscartes was the author of one of these, surprisingly, the erroneous emission theory that supposed light to consist of small particles shot out by the luminous body . Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695) developed Déscartes’ ideas of matter. After further improving the telescope, he saw Saturn’s rings. He analysed the movement of a pendulum, deﬁned inertia, and proposed a theory of gravitation based upon Déscartes vortices.

Robert Hooke (1635-1703) was the ﬁrst to suggest a wave theory of light. In his treatise entitled “Micrographia” of 1664, he asserted that light is a quick and short vibrating motion. This was “propagated every way through an homogeneous medium by direct or straight lines extended every way, like rays from the centre of a sphere”. “Every pulse or vibration of the luminous body will generate a sphere which will continually increase and grow bigger just after the same manner though indeﬁnitely swifter as the waves or rings on the surface of water do swell into bigger and bigger circles about a point on it.” On this hypothesis he gave an account of refraction, reﬂection, dispersion and the colours of thin plates, but his reasoning was “vague and unsatisfactory”. One of his works was a (Cartesian) hypothesis of the cause of gravity. In this he correctly stated that the force was to be found in any propagated pulse of the ether (dark matter). It was posthumously published, but by that time, Newton had entered centre stage.

Straddling the seventeenth and the next century, Isaac Newton (1643- 1727) experimented with light, likewise attempting to improve the work of Déscartes. Newton developed a method of calculus, and a theory of universal gravitational attraction. He applied (Kepler’s) inverse square law to the movement of planets and comets. He decided that in ether (dark matter), the movement of planets would be slowed, as would that of a pendulum. He did not consider it possible that the ether (dark matter) might move at the same time, or that only ether (dark matter) could explain inertia. He simply discarded the ideas of Socrates, Plato, Descartes and (especially) Hooke. Edmund Halley (1656-1742) made observations of the paths of comets, and encouraged Newton to mathematically explain their path. Mathematical equations were devised to calculate and describe reality, but they cannot explain the cause. Newton’s laws thus describe the action of force upon a mass and remain largely an accurate description. The planets though do not follow a ﬁxed path. They wobble around an inconstant mean path. To be fair to Newton, he realised that gravity within the universe would lead to total instability and that the whole would collapse to a solid, but he chose to ignore those thoughts entirely.

At the same time (as Newton) Liebnitz (1646-1716) in Germany appears to have independently devised calculus . He disbelieved the idea of gravitation at a distance. He developed a theory of “Monads” which were spiritual substances, the basis of all composites (a Socratic, also Lutheran idea). Another of Leibnitz’s ideas was to substitute Cartesian mechanics – the conservation of energy with the idea of kinetic energy. As we progressed into the eighteenth century, the French scientist Lagrange (1736-1813) analysed the Moon’s motion relative to the Earth. He showed that at some points there is a stable balance between them. (This is to be expected when two bodies rotate with the semi- solid dark matter). Another Frenchman, Laplace (1749-1827) applied the idea of gravitation to the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn, showing that they vary with a periodicity of 926 years. (Again the two moving slowly in dark matter better explains this slow wobble.) Laplace, suggested that the planetary systems may have condensed out of a huge gaseous nebula. Like Jupiter and Saturn, the movement of Uranus predicted the existence of Neptune and Pluto (but the movement of dark matter was not discounted). Indeed the orbit of mercury varies on each and every circuit. Dozens of new moons around these planets have recently been discovered.

In the nineteenth century, modern technology saw infancy. Englishman Michael Faraday (1791-1867) investigated the nature of electricity and magnetism, and its effect upon light. He (correctly) thought that energy was to be found in the space between the molecules, in dark matter (ether). In 1826 Samuel Heinrich Swabe of Dessau in Germany started a series of observations on sunspots, recording each group as it traversed the Sun’s disk. Twelve years later he published his counts in “Astronomische Nachtricten”. (Searching earlier records, an estimate was made of maximum and minimum sunspot activity back to 1610 ). The Scotsman James Maxwell (1831-1879) showed thatelectromagnetic waves moved at the speed of light, and could be explained by dark matter (ether). His paper on lines of electromagnetic force was read to the Cambridge philosophical society in 1856. His ﬁeld theory of electromagnetism was published in two parts in 1864. His theory of heat was published in 1877. Albert Michelson (1832-1931) devised an experiment with light to test the presence of dark matter (ether), but assumed that the dark matter did not move with the Earth, which negated the experiment (using the Michelson-Morley interferometer).

As progress rushed towards the twentieth century and modern times, Hendrik Lorenz (1853-1928) together with Zeeman, constructed a single theory for the transmission of light and electromagnetism. Lorenz and Henri Poincaré then developed a theory of relativity, published in 1905. Poincaré also postulated gravitational waves. Gravitational waves cannot exist if dark matter acts as a structured semi- solid, with all incompressible matter being in contact. This idea is supported if the pattern CMB (cosmic microwave background) is ﬁxed. If the dark matter particles were not in contact and lightly attached, they could not transmit light or electromagnetism. Because the particles of dark matter are so very small, with almost negligible mass, they conduct light waves almost indeﬁnitely. A waveform degrades only slightly after transmission over many light years of distance from the source (red shift). Likewise, copresumy (the force exerted by dark matter upon molecules) is transmitted as a constant pressure wave, which has a gradient near to a solid object. In proximity to a large body such as a planet, the displacement increases the density of dark matter. This produces an even pressure upon that large body. The change in density of dark matter around a planet will result in refraction of the wave, and apparent “lensing”, which Einstein predicted as showing gravity; yet he said that gravity did not exist, and that this lensing was due to a curve in space. About 90% of the entire mass of the Milky Way is thought to consist of dark matter. The galaxy is warped, but there is still no agreement as to what produces the warping . At the same time, Nebulae are observed to ﬂow. Christian Doppler (1033-1853) born in Salzburg, Austria, was professor of physics at Vienna. He discovered the effect that velocity has on light, sound and microwaves in 1842. He postulated that light from a receding star would demonstrate a change in the wavelength of its light. This idea was to be taken up by Hubble in the 1920’s. Max Planck (1858-1957) was the German physicist who in 1900 developed a mathematical theory of energy that he called quantum theory. He correctly asserted that energy was disseminated from a vibrating source. He deﬁned the energy from this source as E=hv, where E is energy, h is Planck’s constant, and v is the wavelength of the light. All this actually means is that the greater the amplitude, the greater the energy. It does not mean that the photons or energy quanta are actually shot out as vibrating energy packets at all. The vibration of one particle is transmitted to its neighbour. At the same time, the strength of the vibration is proportional to the size or amplitude of the vibration. That is straight forward enough. What might now be revolutionary is that the particles are packed tight together, and the size or mass of the particle affects its ability to vibrate and thus transmit energy. At high temperature, the wavelength shortens. Only a small part of the spectrum that is visible to the human eye is called “light”. It again it should be no surprise that energy is passed faster with shorter and quicker vibrations. It is useful to describe this with equations if we are trying to calculate heat output. Simple mathematical explanations are invariably wrong, since some of the energy is passed in ways and at wavelengths not anticipated. Albert Einstein (1879-1955) born at Urm, now in Western Germany, studied in Zurich, Switzerland, in 1905. He developed his theory of relativity in 1906, following a paper on Brownian motion, and another on the kinetics of heat. Einstein set out to show that space and time were the same, since the speed of light is constant; that mass and energy are equivalent. In 1918 he postulated that gravity is not a force, but a feature of space-time resulting from the curvature of space. Einstein’s view was that if one travelled as fast as light, then light would not be observed, but would stand still. This observation would be made if any human could ever travel at the speed of the light wave. The fact that ahuman eye would fail to observe light at any speed that took the wave out of the visible spectrum has absolutely no bearing on the nature ofthe light wave itself. Einstein could not believe in the inﬁnity of the Universe, so had to postulate a curved Universe that is shaped like a globe.

Since Einstein’s day, it has been shown that there can be differences in the speed of light. Black holes have been predicted as a consequence of very dense matter in which gravity is so strong as to prevent the emission of light. Another theory would be necessary to explain a black hole if there is no such thing as the attraction of gravity. Indeed no black hole has ever been demonstrated. Likewise such phenomena as wormholes and time machines are a ﬁgment of imagination, and will never be demonstrated. If the transmission of light slows below that visible, due to a low enough temperature, it will naturally increase its transmission speed again as the transmitting medium warms up. Heat after all is another type of energy associated with the vibration of particulate matter. If there is such a thing as a black hole, it will prove to be a cold spot in the Universe where matter is so low in temperature that matter altogether ceases to react or vibrate. Since all dark matter is continuous and will evenly distribute energy, this will never occur. There is a current obsession with black holes. Einstein proposed the existence of “dark stars” (black holes). Without gravity there can be no black holes. A black hole has been suggested as the centre of each galaxy, somehow holding the galaxy in its spiral, yet permitting the enormous speeds and erratic star orbits at its centre. In the black hole it is said that an area of the size of a speck of dust is consuming matter, and is 3 million times the weight of the sun. Thought to have such massive gravity and mass, yet having only a local inﬂuence, this super- massive black hole if it existed, would surely devour the Universe in an instant. The Andromeda galaxy and the Milky Way galaxy are headed towards each other at about 500,000 kilometres an hour, yet they are not expected to coalesce for some 5-7 billion years yet. It has been predicted that the two postulated central black holes will come together 25 billion years after the big bang. All the stars in the two galaxies would then be devoured and “switched off”. In a further great stretch of imagination, Steven Hawking has claimed that even black holes will eventually evaporate, one molecule at a time, 10 100 years from now (ten google years). More logically, in that situation, if there had been a big bang producing everything from nothing, then all would collapse to nothing again with the end of all time. In a further example of Newton’s continued inﬂuence, Professor Fred Adams of the University of Michigan recently suggested that as the sun reaches the end of its life, the Earth’s population could use the gravitational tug of a giant asteroid to adjust the orbit!

Edwin Hubble (1889-1953) saw that light from far away across the galaxy was redder than light from the sun. This led him to suppose that the stars were all receding from us at great speed, causing the light to change its wavelength in accord with Doppler’s theory. There was always the alternative possibility that light was slowing down in wavelength, as the dark matter vibrates less, further from the source, instead of the star source moving. That hypothesis was rejected. The “Big Bang” theory was thus spawned, and has been a great favourite of contemporary physicists. That all matter in the universe should have come from a pinhead by spontaneous explosion in a millisecond, proposed by Hubble in 1929, is surely the most preposterous theory of all time. It is simply enough countered by the demonstration that light waves canslow through cold matter to 30-1 ms. The slowing of light vibrations thus is proved to occur other than simply by movement of the source of the light. The idea that all matter moves away from us, would anyway go against the idea of an inﬁnite universe. That would assume that we are at the centre of all matter. The most distantly created waveform light from far across the Universe has now been shown to slow to microwave frequency by the time it is detected by us as the microwave background. Older light will be detected at lower frequencies still. The newly launched Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF) will look for this radiation , which I predict will come from every part of the sky, and will appear much as the microwave background.

In another demonstration of the variance of the speed of light under artiﬁcial conditions it has now been shown that light waves may travel faster than the standard ﬁxed speed. It was reported in July 2000, that light may be caused to travel at least 7% faster than its normal observed speed. That there is indeed dark matter, the particles of which pervade intermolecular space with particles in complete contact, can be explained by simple analogy. Suppose that there is a line of cars ( imagine them as separate particles) travelling in a trafﬁc queue. Suppose then there is a slowing of any one car to (or almost to) a halt. You will ﬁnd that every succeeding car is forced to come to a halt. Then when the car that initially slowed, speeds up again, it moves ahead, yet the cars behind must come to a halt before the way is clear and they can speed up themselves. The only way that this would not happen is if the cars are all connected together by solid tow bars, like carriages of a railway train. Only if the cars or bodies are ﬁxed together can there be a transmission wave along its length. Thus it can be seen that to transmit a wave through dark matter the particles must all be in contact, ﬁxed ever so delicately to each other. This demonstration of structure within the dark matter is seen in practice as the pattern of the cosmic microwave background. Quantum entanglement shows an interlaced structure. Likewise the ﬁrst data from the Wilkinson microwave anisotropy probe (WMAP) conﬁrms this theory .

The galaxies are known to move and rotate in space in reaction to dark matter. Dark matter is composed of virtually massless particles, packed together as a cohesive material. This material forces atoms together into spherical bubbles that ﬂoat and circulate much as described in Déscartes’ vortex theory. The dark matter is broadly even in density and temperature, yet is seen to have a distinct variability in radiation pattern. The displacement of the dark matter in space is greater the larger or denser a molecular body, so producing a greater displacement force upon the Earth than the Moon. The transmission of light and other waveforms are radial vibrations of that stable medium. Refraction of light occurs when the vibration is transmitted at an angle into a medium of different density. Thus, when displaced by a very large body such as a planet or star, the density of the dark matter around it is increased by that same displacement. This increase in local density is sufﬁcient that the light that is transmitted through the medium close to the star is refracted or “lensed” around it.

Space is inﬁnite, and has no discernable margin. Light will slow when transmitted over very long distances As the waveform degrades it appears to us redder, eventually slowing from the visible spectrum into microwaves. This negates the idea of a “big bang”. It never stood to reason that all matter came from one tiny particle in an instant. An inﬁnite universe has an inﬁnite structure. Devoid of time, this is not so hard to understand.

Time and Space

Einstein [had] apparently shown that time was a dimension. This is not so and can be disproved. Time is not an independent variable. Space- time is not as Einstein postulated, and relativity theory does not hold true. A simple time experiment: If time is truly independent of events, then time can be applied to events and cause them to vary. If we look at an event that happens with absolute regularity, and can show that it can be altered in any way by the application of time as an independent force or dimension, then time truly has that effect. If we can apply time in a simple manner to a regular but random event, and see a difference, then Einstein may be right. The alternative is simply that time is only a construct of the rate of change. Usually we choose to measure time as deﬁned by a day, one revolution of the Earth around the Sun, or an atomic clock. This speed is only judged by our own experience. To a baby a day appears inﬁnite, yet as we get old, the years start to blur. To understand whether time has any independent meaning, ﬁrst imagine the movement of a pendulum in a room. If it were to move slowly, would it be possible to move in and out of the room at will and see only the forward movement of the pendulum, and not the backward movement? If the pendulum moves as predicted, its movement can be foreseen by timing it, and it will be possible to see all the forward strokes and none of the backstrokes. This would not be a manipulation of events by time. If however we ﬂip a coin and record how many times it falls as “heads”, and how many are “tails”, then overall, as we all know, the number of each is absolutely equal over the passage of time. Indeed try this yourself and the longer you go on, the more even it becomes. There can be a variance up to about a factor of ten, but there is a true oscillation about the mean, and as time progresses, the result is always even. If however we suppose that time is truly a variable, then it can be applied to this random process. If the coin is ﬂipped once, it may come down “heads”. If it comes down “tails ﬁrst”, then maybe it will come down “heads” next. If therefore we ﬂip the coin until we have scored an excess of one occurrence of “heads” over “tails”, then we have applied time to the process. In order to see if time does independantly exist, if then we go away and come back another day, whilst the process of ﬂipping the coin or rotating a roulette wheel for example, continues remote from us (as in a casino), then we should be able to start from a random beginning on the next day, and again proceed until there is an excess of one “head”. If overall this process can becontinued indeﬁnitely, then time, as an independent variable will be shown to exist. This is much more practical than attempting to exceed the speed of light. When this coin experiment is continued over many days and months, the events are random, and the number of “heads” versus “tails” always eventually returns to zero, equality. In practice an apparent excess of up to ten “heads” (up or down) can be built up. Likewise in roulette, an excess of ten times will allow a gain to be built. As surely, the number will return to zero or up to minus ten will build, only to gradually revert again. Time is only a measure of the speed of a process relative to another event. Time is not independent of the process. Equally, Light is the propagation of a wave from one virtually massless particle to another at a ﬁnite and measurable speed. Whereas it can be measured in time by comparison to the movement of the earth around the sun in a year (light year), the passage of light cannot be changed by the application of time as a dimension. Time is not altered by ﬂying around the universe at inﬁnite speed, or by coming in and out of the time experiment at different moments. Time therefore does not exist outside of human experience. Unfortunately Einstein based his ideas on Newton’s gravity theory. Few wanted to believe Einstein’s theories anyway, until the eclipse of 1919, when the light from a star appeared to be bent by the gravity of the Sun. Few seem to have remembered those wise men and their earlier theories. The light was as one would expect, refracted in the altered density of the dark matter around the Sun. The sun, as other molecular bodies, displaces the dark matter, causing an altered density of the dark matter around it. Different densities of material are well known to refract light, and there is little difﬁculty understanding that concept. What is not clear is why so many persons have grasped the idea of Einstein’s relativity concerning the warping of an integrated space-time, pretending that they understood it and that the concept was real.

The age of the Universe was always academic. Time (as demonstrated above) does not independantly exist; so outside of human experience, all things can happen in an instant, or take forever. Time is only a measure of the progress of events. Events and processes speed up or slow down relative to each other. There is no age in an inﬁnite, non-expanding universe. In the absence of time, all eternity may happen in a (relative)microsecond, or continue forever. Outside our own perception, events may proceed very differently. If we can understand that time does not exist, then time travel is unnecessary. Spirits outside the human body may experience the past and the future at the same time. God couldindeed construct the world in six “days”. The existence of structure in the dark matter, demonstrated by the uninterruptedness of light waves and microwaves, allows us to postulate that human spirit and memories exist are recorded and experienced at the subatomic level. They work through the atomic medium, but they are not atomic matter themselves. Human memory and spirit exist in the dark matter. The experience known as “Life” is outside of the molecular world .